Common Knowledge (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
First published Tue Aug 28, 2001; substantive revision Fri Aug 5, 2022 A proposition \(A\) is mutual knowledge among a set of agents if each agent knows that \(A\). Mutual knowledge by itself implies nothing about what, if any, knowledge anyone attributes to anyone else. Suppose each student arrives for a class meeting knowing that the instructor will be late. That the instructor will be late is m
Dynamic Semantics (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
First published Mon Aug 23, 2010; substantive revision Tue Jul 12, 2016 Dynamic semantics is a perspective on natural language semantics that emphasizes the growth of information in time. It is an approach to meaning representation where pieces of text or discourse are viewed as instructions to update an existing context with new information, the result of which is an updated context. In a slogan:
Philosophy of Technology (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
First published Fri Feb 20, 2009; substantive revision Mon Mar 6, 2023 If philosophy is the attempt “to understand how things in the broadest possible sense of the term hang together in the broadest possible sense of the term”, as Sellars (1962) put it, philosophy should not ignore technology. It is largely by technology that contemporary society hangs together. It is hugely important not only as
Theory and Observation in Science (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
First published Tue Jan 6, 2009; substantive revision Mon Jun 14, 2021 Scientists obtain a great deal of the evidence they use by collecting and producing empirical results. Much of the standard philosophical literature on this subject comes from 20th century logical empiricists, their followers, and critics who embraced their issues while objecting to some of their aims and assumptions. Discussio
Necessary and Sufficient Conditions (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
First published Fri Aug 15, 2003; substantive revision Wed Jul 6, 2022 A handy tool in the search for precise definitions is the specification of necessary and/or sufficient conditions for the application of a term, the use of a concept, or the occurrence of some phenomenon or event. For example, without water and oxygen, there would be no human life; hence these things are necessary conditions fo
Toleration (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
First published Fri Feb 23, 2007; substantive revision Wed Jul 12, 2017 The term “toleration”—from the Latin tolerare: to put up with, countenance or suffer—generally refers to the conditional acceptance of or non-interference with beliefs, actions or practices that one considers to be wrong but still “tolerable,” such that they should not be prohibited or constrained. There are many contexts in w
Depiction (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
First published Thu Jun 8, 2017; substantive revision Thu May 20, 2021 Depiction or pictorial representation was studied less intensively by philosophers than linguistic meaning until the 1960s. The traditional doctrine that pictures represent objects by copying their appearance had been challenged by art theorists since the first quarter of the twentieth century, when what were thought of as illu
Scientific Representation (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
First published Mon Oct 10, 2016; substantive revision Thu Nov 4, 2021 Science provides us with representations of atoms, elementary particles, polymers, populations, pandemics, economies, rational decisions, aeroplanes, earthquakes, forest fires, irrigation systems, and the world’s climate. It’s through these representations that we learn about the world. This entry explores various different acc
Hegel’s Aesthetics (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
First published Tue Jan 20, 2009; substantive revision Wed Apr 3, 2024 G.W.F. Hegel’s aesthetics, or philosophy of art, forms part of the extraordinarily rich German aesthetic tradition that stretches from J.J. Winckelmann’s Thoughts on the Imitation of the Painting and Sculpture of the Greeks (1755) and G.E. Lessing’s Laocoon (1766) through Immanuel Kant’s Critique of the Power of Judgment (1790)
The Ethics and Rationality of Voting (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
First published Thu Jul 28, 2016; substantive revision Fri Dec 4, 2020 This entry focuses on six major questions concerning the rationality and morality of voting: Is it rational for an individual citizen to vote? Is there a moral duty to vote? Are there moral obligations regarding how citizens vote? Is it justifiable for governments to compel citizens to vote? Is it permissible to buy, trade, and
Reasons for Action: Justification, Motivation, Explanation (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
Reasons for Action: Justification, Motivation, Explanation First published Sun Apr 24, 2016; substantive revision Thu Aug 22, 2024 Why should the UN intervene in this international crisis? Why did the Ancient Egyptians mummify their dead? Should Huck Finn have helped Jim escape and, if so, why? Why is she selling her car? What shall we do this evening? Questions like these that explicitly or impli
The Philosophy of Digital Art (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
First published Mon Feb 23, 2015; substantive revision Fri Dec 15, 2023 The philosophy of digital art is the philosophical study of art that crucially relies on computer processing in its production or presentation. There are many kinds of digital art, including digital cinema and video, digital photography and painting, electronic music, literary works generated by so-called “chatbots”, NFT art,
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The Ethics of Cultural Heritage (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
Reflective Equilibrium (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
Determinates vs. Determinables (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy/Winter 2016 Edition)
Folk Psychology as a Theory (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
Philosophy of Architecture (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
Alienation (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
Dreams and Dreaming (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
18th Century French Aesthetics (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)