Chance versus Randomness (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
First published Wed Aug 18, 2010; substantive revision Thu Feb 8, 2018 Randomness, as we ordinarily think of it, exists when some outcomes occur haphazardly, unpredictably, or by chance. These latter three notions are all distinct, but all have some kind of close connection to probability. Notoriously, there are many kinds of probability: subjective probabilities (‘degrees of belief’), evidential
Socrates (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
First published Fri Sep 16, 2005; substantive revision Thu May 26, 2022 Constantin Brancusi. Socrates Image © The Museum of Modern Art; Licensed by Scala/Art Resource, NY ©2005 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York/ADAGP, Paris reproduced with permission of the Brancusi Estate The philosopher Socrates remains, as he was in his lifetime (469–399 B.C.E.),[1] an enigma, an inscrutable individual who
The Equivalence of Mass and Energy (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
First published Wed Sep 12, 2001; substantive revision Thu Aug 15, 2019 Einstein correctly described the equivalence of mass and energy as “the most important upshot of the special theory of relativity” (Einstein 1919), for this result lies at the core of modern physics. Many commentators have observed that in Einstein’s first derivation of this famous result, he did not express it with the equati
Jacques Lacan (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
First published Tue Apr 2, 2013; substantive revision Sat Dec 24, 2022 Jacques Marie Émile Lacan (April 13, 1901 to September 9, 1981) was a major figure in Parisian intellectual life for much of the twentieth century. Sometimes referred to as “the French Freud,” he is an important figure in the history of psychoanalysis. His teachings and writings explore the significance of Freud’s discovery of
Kant’s Critique of Metaphysics (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
First published Sun Feb 29, 2004; substantive revision Wed Sep 14, 2022 How are synthetic a priori propositions possible? This question is often times understood to frame the investigations at issue in Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason. In answer to it, Kant saw fit to divide the question into three: 1) How are the synthetic a priori propositions of mathematics possible? 2) How are the synthetic a pr
Authenticity (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
First published Thu Sep 11, 2014; substantive revision Thu Feb 20, 2020 The term ‘authentic’ is used either in the strong sense of being “of undisputed origin or authorship”, or in a weaker sense of being “faithful to an original” or a “reliable, accurate representation”. To say that something is authentic is to say that it is what it professes to be, or what it is reputed to be, in origin or auth
Categories (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
First published Thu Jun 3, 2004; substantive revision Tue Nov 22, 2022 A system of categories is a complete list of highest kinds or genera. Traditionally, following Aristotle, these have been thought of as highest genera of entities (in the widest sense of the term), so that a system of categories undertaken in this realist spirit would ideally provide an inventory of everything there is, thus an
Propositions (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
First published Mon Dec 19, 2005; substantive revision Fri Sep 29, 2023 The term ‘proposition’ has a broad use in contemporary philosophy. It is used to refer to some or all of the following: the primary bearers of truth-value, the objects of belief and other “propositional attitudes” (i.e., what is believed, doubted, etc.[1]), the referents of that-clauses, and the meanings of sentences. One migh
Logic and Probability (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
First published Thu Mar 7, 2013; substantive revision Thu Aug 17, 2023 Logic and probability theory are two of the main tools in the formal study of reasoning, and have been fruitfully applied in areas as diverse as philosophy, artificial intelligence, cognitive science and mathematics. This entry discusses the major proposals to combine logic and probability theory, and attempts to provide a clas
The Philosophy of Computer Science (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
First published Tue Aug 20, 2013; substantive revision Tue Jan 19, 2021 The philosophy of computer science is concerned with the ontological and methodological issues arising from within the academic discipline of computer science, and from the practice of software development and its commercial and industrial deployment. More specifically, the philosophy of computer science considers the ontology
Gilles Deleuze (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
First published Fri May 23, 2008; substantive revision Fri Jun 3, 2022 Gilles Deleuze (January 18, 1925–November 4, 1995) was one of the most influential and prolific French philosophers of the second half of the twentieth century. Deleuze conceived of philosophy as the production of concepts, and he characterized himself as a “pure metaphysician.” In his magnum opus Difference and Repetition, he
Interpretations of Probability (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
First published Mon Oct 21, 2002; substantive revision Thu Nov 16, 2023 Probability is the most important concept in modern science, especially as nobody has the slightest notion what it means. —Bertrand Russell, 1929 Lecture (cited in Bell 1945, 587) One regularly reads and hears probabilistic claims like the following: The Democrats will probably win the next election. The coin is just as likely
Science and Pseudo-Science (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
First published Wed Sep 3, 2008; substantive revision Thu May 20, 2021 The demarcation between science and pseudoscience is part of the larger task of determining which beliefs are epistemically warranted. This entry clarifies the specific nature of pseudoscience in relation to other categories of non-scientific doctrines and practices, including science denial(ism) and resistance to the facts. Th
Action-based Theories of Perception (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
First published Wed Jul 8, 2015; substantive revision Tue Sep 19, 2023 Action is a means of acquiring perceptual information about the environment. Turning around, for example, alters your spatial relations to surrounding objects and, hence, which of their properties you visually perceive. Moving your hand over an object’s surface enables you to feel its shape, temperature, and texture. Sniffing a
Proof-Theoretic Semantics (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
First published Wed Dec 5, 2012; substantive revision Fri Aug 18, 2023 Proof-theoretic semantics is an alternative to truth-condition semantics. It is based on the fundamental assumption that the central notion in terms of which meanings are assigned to certain expressions of our language, in particular to logical constants, is that of proof rather than truth. In this sense proof-theoretic semanti
Embodied Cognition (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
Embodied Cognition is a wide-ranging research program drawing from and inspiring work in psychology, neuroscience, ethology, philosophy, linguistics, robotics, and artificial intelligence. Whereas traditional cognitive science also encompasses these disciplines, it finds common purpose in a conception of mind wedded to computationalism: mental processes are computational processes; the brain, qua
Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Properties (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
First published Sat Jan 5, 2002; substantive revision Mon Sep 18, 2023 We have some of our properties purely in virtue of the way we are. (Our mass is an example.) We have other properties in virtue of the way we interact with the world. (Our weight is an example.) The former are the intrinsic properties, the latter are the extrinsic properties. This seems to be an intuitive enough distinction to
Bell’s Theorem (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
First published Wed Jul 21, 2004; substantive revision Thu Jan 25, 2024 Bell’s Theorem is the collective name for a family of results, all of which involve the derivation, from a condition on probability distributions inspired by considerations of local causality, together with auxiliary assumptions usually thought of as mild side-assumptions, of probabilistic predictions about the results of spat
Preferences (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
First published Wed Oct 4, 2006; substantive revision Mon Mar 14, 2022 The notion of preference has a central role in many disciplines, including moral philosophy and decision theory. Preferences and their logical properties also have a central role in rational choice theory, a subject that in its turn permeates modern economics, as well as other branches of formalized social science. The notion o
The Development of Proof Theory (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
First published Wed Apr 16, 2008; substantive revision Mon Oct 13, 2014 The development of proof theory can be naturally divided into: the prehistory of the notion of proof in ancient logic and mathematics; the discovery by Frege that mathematical proofs, and not only the propositions of mathematics, can (and should) be represented in a logical system; Hilbert's old axiomatic proof theory; failure
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