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First published Tue Apr 2, 2013; substantive revision Sat Dec 24, 2022 Jacques Marie Émile Lacan (April 13, 1901 to September 9, 1981) was a major figure in Parisian intellectual life for much of the twentieth century. Sometimes referred to as “the French Freud,” he is an important figure in the history of psychoanalysis. His teachings and writings explore the significance of Freud’s discovery of
First published Thu Sep 11, 2014; substantive revision Thu Feb 20, 2020 The term ‘authentic’ is used either in the strong sense of being “of undisputed origin or authorship”, or in a weaker sense of being “faithful to an original” or a “reliable, accurate representation”. To say that something is authentic is to say that it is what it professes to be, or what it is reputed to be, in origin or auth
Embodied Cognition is a wide-ranging research program drawing from and inspiring work in psychology, neuroscience, ethology, philosophy, linguistics, robotics, and artificial intelligence. Whereas traditional cognitive science also encompasses these disciplines, it finds common purpose in a conception of mind wedded to computationalism: mental processes are computational processes; the brain, qua
First published Wed Jan 8, 1997; substantive revision Fri Nov 10, 2017 There are various equivalent formulations of the Church-Turing thesis. A common one is that every effective computation can be carried out by a Turing machine. The Church-Turing thesis is often misunderstood, particularly in recent writing in the philosophy of mind. 1. The Thesis and its History The Church-Turing thesis concern
First published Thu Jul 19, 2001; substantive revision Mon Aug 9, 2021 One doesn’t go far in the study of what there is without encountering the view that every entity falls into one of two categories: concrete or abstract. The distinction is supposed to be of fundamental significance for metaphysics (especially for ontology), epistemology, and the philosophy of the formal sciences (especially for
First published Sun Sep 23, 2007; substantive revision Thu Mar 7, 2024 In the early years of the twentieth century, Gottlob Frege and David Hilbert, two titans of mathematical logic, engaged in a controversy regarding the correct understanding of the role of axioms in mathematical theories, and the correct way to demonstrate consistency and independence results for such axioms. The controversy tou
First published Thu Jul 28, 2016; substantive revision Fri Dec 4, 2020 This entry focuses on six major questions concerning the rationality and morality of voting: Is it rational for an individual citizen to vote? Is there a moral duty to vote? Are there moral obligations regarding how citizens vote? Is it justifiable for governments to compel citizens to vote? Is it permissible to buy, trade, and
First published Thu Aug 19, 2004; substantive revision Tue Apr 5, 2022 Principia Mathematica [PM] by A.N. Whitehead and Bertrand Russell, published 1910–1913 in three volumes by Cambridge University Press, contains a derivation of large portions of mathematics using notions and principles of symbolic logic. The notation in that work has been superseded by the subsequent development of logic during
First published Thu Nov 25, 2004; substantive revision Wed May 22, 2024 Recent years have seen a growing consensus in the philosophical community that the grandfather paradox and similar logical puzzles do not preclude the possibility of time travel scenarios that utilize spacetimes containing closed timelike curves. At the same time, physicists, who for half a century acknowledged that the genera
First published Fri Feb 12, 2016; substantive revision Mon Sep 23, 2024 Intuitionistic type theory (also constructive type theory or Martin-Löf type theory) is a formal logical system and philosophical foundation for constructive mathematics. It is a full-scale system which aims to play a similar role for constructive mathematics as Zermelo-Fraenkel Set Theory does for classical mathematics. It is
Telling fictional stories and engaging with the fictional stories of others is an important and pervasive part of human culture. But people not only tell and engage with fictional stories. They also reflect on the content of stories, and on the way these are told. Grappling with the many issues such reflection uncovers has long been a concern of professional academics in language departments and o
First published Wed Dec 16, 2015; substantive revision Fri Oct 9, 2020 Decision theory is concerned with the reasoning underlying an agent’s choices, whether this is a mundane choice between taking the bus or getting a taxi, or a more far-reaching choice about whether to pursue a demanding political career. (Note that “agent” here stands for an entity, usually an individual person, that is capable
First published Fri Aug 15, 2003; substantive revision Wed Jul 6, 2022 A handy tool in the search for precise definitions is the specification of necessary and/or sufficient conditions for the application of a term, the use of a concept, or the occurrence of some phenomenon or event. For example, without water and oxygen, there would be no human life; hence these things are necessary conditions fo
First published Fri Aug 17, 2007; substantive revision Tue Jan 14, 2020 The Parmenides is, quite possibly, the most enigmatic of Plato’s dialogues. The dialogue recounts an almost certainly fictitious conversation between a venerable Parmenides (the Eleatic Monist) and a youthful Socrates, followed by a dizzying array of interconnected arguments presented by Parmenides to a young and compliant int
Hermeneutics is the study of interpretation. Hermeneutics plays a role in a number of disciplines whose subject matter demands interpretative approaches, characteristically, because the disciplinary subject matter concerns the meaning of human intentions, beliefs, and actions, or the meaning of human experience as it is preserved in the arts and literature, historical testimony, and other artifact
First published Fri Oct 26, 2012; substantive revision Wed Nov 1, 2023 Philosophy of Information deals with the philosophical analysis of the notion of information both from a historical and a systematic perspective. With the emergence of the empiricist theory of knowledge in early modern philosophy, the development of various mathematical theories of information in the twentieth century and the r
First published Thu Nov 28, 1996; substantive revision Tue Feb 22, 2022 Liberalism is more than one thing. On any close examination, it seems to fracture into a range of related but sometimes competing visions. In this entry we focus on debates within the liberal tradition. (1) We contrast three interpretations of liberalism’s core commitment to liberty. (2) We contrast ‘old’ and ‘new’ liberalism.
First published Mon Jan 14, 2002; substantive revision Sat Apr 24, 2021 Evolutionary game theory originated as an application of the mathematical theory of games to biological contexts, arising from the realization that frequency dependent fitness introduces a strategic aspect to evolution. Recently, however, evolutionary game theory has become of increased interest to economists, sociologists, an
First published Thu Mar 7, 2013; substantive revision Thu Aug 17, 2023 Logic and probability theory are two of the main tools in the formal study of reasoning, and have been fruitfully applied in areas as diverse as philosophy, artificial intelligence, cognitive science and mathematics. This entry discusses the major proposals to combine logic and probability theory, and attempts to provide a clas
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy organizes scholars from around the world in philosophy and related disciplines to create and maintain an up-to-date reference work. Current Operations Are Supported By: The Offices of the Provost, the Dean of Humanities and Sciences, and the Dean of Research, Stanford University The SEP Library Fund: containing contributions from the National Endowment for t
First published Tue Feb 1, 2011; substantive revision Mon Apr 20, 2020 Discrimination is prohibited by six of the core international human rights documents. The vast majority of the world’s states have constitutional or statutory provisions outlawing discrimination (Osin and Porat 2005). And most philosophical, political, and legal discussions of discrimination proceed on the premise that discrimi
First published Fri Jul 18, 2003; substantive revision Tue Oct 11, 2022 Virtue ethics is currently one of three major approaches in normative ethics. It may, initially, be identified as the one that emphasizes the virtues, or moral character, in contrast to the approach that emphasizes duties or rules (deontology) or that emphasizes the consequences of actions (consequentialism). Suppose it is obv
First published Fri Feb 23, 2007; substantive revision Wed Jul 12, 2017 The term “toleration”—from the Latin tolerare: to put up with, countenance or suffer—generally refers to the conditional acceptance of or non-interference with beliefs, actions or practices that one considers to be wrong but still “tolerable,” such that they should not be prohibited or constrained. There are many contexts in w
First published Tue Jul 27, 2004; substantive revision Fri Mar 1, 2024 An ongoing debate in the foundations of quantum physics concerns the role of mathematical rigor. The contrasting views of von Neumann and Dirac provide interesting and informative insights concerning two sides of this debate. Von Neumann’s contributions often emphasize mathematical rigor and Dirac’s contributions emphasize prag
First published Wed Sep 6, 2006; substantive revision Sat Sep 16, 2023 Linear logic is a refinement of classical and intuitionistic logic. Instead of emphasizing truth, as in classical logic, or proof, as in intuitionistic logic, linear logic emphasizes the role of formulas as resources. To achieve this focus, linear logic does not allow the usual structural rules of contraction and weakening to a
First published Wed Dec 12, 2012; substantive revision Tue Jul 25, 2023 The \(\lambda\)-calculus is, at heart, a simple notation for functions and application. The main ideas are applying a function to an argument and forming functions by abstraction. The syntax of basic \(\lambda\)-calculus is quite sparse, making it an elegant, focused notation for representing functions. Functions and arguments
First published Tue Dec 4, 2012; substantive revision Tue May 9, 2017 This entry addresses the nature and epistemological role of intuition by considering the following questions: (1) What are intuitions?, (2) What roles do they serve in philosophical (and other “armchair”) inquiry?, (3) Ought they serve such roles?, (4) What are the implications of the empirical investigation of intuitions for th
First published Mon Feb 4, 2002; substantive revision Tue Aug 10, 2021 Mathematically, quantum mechanics can be regarded as a non-classical probability calculus resting upon a non-classical propositional logic. More specifically, in quantum mechanics each probability-bearing proposition of the form “the value of physical quantity \(A\) lies in the range \(B\)” is represented by a projection operat
First published Thu Jun 12, 2003; substantive revision Mon Aug 31, 2020 Roman Ingarden (1893–1970) was a Polish phenomenologist, ontologist and aesthetician. A student of Edmund Husserl’s from the Göttingen period, Ingarden was a realist phenomenologist who spent much of his career working against what he took to be Husserl’s turn to transcendental idealism. As preparatory work for narrowing down
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